P019 Forms of government: present and future
Table of contents
The forms and types of states and governments that exist today can be found under the heading
P006.04 Form of state – form of government – type of government
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Forms of democracy, their characteristics, advantages and disadvantages
| Form of Democracy | Core Feature | Typical Countries | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Direct Democracy | Citizens decide directly on laws/policies | Switzerland (partly), Cantons | High citizen participation, direct control | Practically difficult to implement in large states |
| Indirect / Representative Democracy | Citizens elect representatives who make decisions | Germany, USA, Japan | Efficient, manageable for large states | Representatives may fail to reflect citizens’ interests |
| Parliamentary Democracy | Government elected by parliament | United Kingdom, Canada, India | Strong connection between legislative and executive | Governments can be unstable in coalitions |
| Presidential Democracy | President = Head of State & Head of Government | USA, Brazil | Clear separation of powers, stable government | Concentration of power in the president |
| Semi-Presidential Democracy | President + Prime Minister share power | France, Portugal | Flexibility, balance of power | Conflicts between president & prime minister possible |
| Federal Democracy | Power divided between central government & regions | Germany, USA, India | Strengthens regional autonomy | Conflicts between federal & regional governments possible |
| Participatory Democracy | Citizens have extended rights to participate | Brazil (partly), local EU initiatives | Greater citizen engagement, involvement | Time-consuming, complex |
| Consensus-Oriented Democracy | Decisions made through compromise & inclusion of all groups | Switzerland (concordance), Belgium | Stable solutions, minorities included | Slow decision-making processes |
| Deliberative Democracy | Decisions based on discussion & rational evaluation | Iceland (citizens’ assemblies), citizen forums worldwide | High quality of decisions | Practically demanding, time-intensive |
| E-Democracy | Use of internet & digital tools for participation | Estonia, South Korea, online participations worldwide | Easier access, modern participation | Security risks, possible digital divide |
Democracies of all kinds
Parliamentary democracy
- Saint Pierre and Miquelon (parliamentary democracy (territory of France))
- Andorra (parliamentary democracy)
- Bosnia and Herzegovina (parliamentary democracy)
- Greece (parliamentary democracy)
- Italy (parliamentary democracy)
- Kosovo (parliamentary democracy)
- Croatia (parliamentary democracy)
- Malta (parliamentary democracy)
- Montenegro (parliamentary democracy)
- North Macedonia (parliamentary democracy)
- Greenland (parliamentary democracy (territory of the Kingdom of Denmark))
- Bermuda (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- Antigua and Barbuda (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Aruba (parliamentary democracy (autonomous territory within the Kingdom of the Netherlands))
- Bahamas (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Barbados (parliamentary democracy)
- Curaçao (parliamentary democracy (autonomous territory within the Kingdom of the Netherlands))
- Belize (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Falkland Islands (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom)
- Anguilla (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- Grenada (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Jamaica (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Virgin Islands (UK) (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- Cayman Islands (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- Montserrat (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- Saint Lucia (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- St. Vincent and the Grenadines (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Turks and Caicos Islands (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
Parliamentary Republic
- Bulgaria (parliamentary republic)
- Moldova (parliamentary republic)
- Poland (parliamentary republic)
- Slovakia (parliamentary republic (!!))
- Czechia (parliamentary republic)
- Hungary (parliamentary republic (!!))
- Estonia (parliamentary republic)
- Finland (parliamentary republic)
- Åland Islands (autonomous region of Finland)
- Ireland (parliamentary republic)
- Iceland (parliamentary republic)
- Latvia (parliamentary republic)
- Albania (parliamentary republic)
- San Marino (parliamentary republic)
- Serbia (parliamentary republic)
- Slovenia (parliamentary republic)
- Guyana (parliamentary republic)
- Trinidad and Tobago (parliamentary republic)
- Dominica (parliamentary republic (Commonwealth of Nations))
Presidential republic (president = head of state + head of government)
- Dominican Republic (presidential republic)
- Costa Rica (presidential republic)
- El Salvador (presidential republic)
- Guatemala (presidential republic)
- Honduras (presidential republic)
- Nicaragua (presidential republic)
- Panama (presidential republic)
- Argentina (presidential republic)
- Bolivia (presidential republic)
- Colombia (presidential republic)
- Paraguay (presidential republic)
- Peru (presidential republic)
- Suriname (presidential republic)
- Uruguay (presidential republic)
Presidential democracy (president directly elected by the people/parliament independent)
- Virgin Islands (US) (Presidential democracy (self-governing territory of the US))
- Puerto Rico (Presidential democracy (unincorporated territory of the US))
Semi-presidential democracy
- France (semi-presidential republic)
- Saint Pierre and Miquelon (parliamentary democracy (territory of France))
- French Guiana (overseas territory of France)
- Guadeloupe (overseas territory of France)
- Martinique (overseas territory of France)
- Saint Martin (overseas territory of France)
- Saint Barthélemy (corporation of France)
- Romania (semi-presidential republic)
- Ukraine (semi-presidential republic)
- Lithuania (semi-presidential republic)
- Portugal (semi-presidential republic)
- Haiti (semi-presidential republic)
Federal Republic
- Switzerland (Federal Republic)
Federal Presidential Republic
- Mexico (Federal Presidential Republic)
- Brazil (Federal Presidential Republic)
- Venezuela (Federal Presidential Republic(!!))
Federal presidential constitutional republic
- United States of America / USA (Federal presidential constitutional republic)
- Virgin Islands (US) (Presidential democracy (self-governing territory of the USA))
- Puerto Rico (Presidential democracy (unincorporated territory of the USA))
Federal parliamentary republic with a democratic system)
- Germany (federal parliamentary republic)
- Austria (federal parliamentary republic)
- Canada (federal parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
Monarchies: their characteristics, advantages and disadvantages
| Form of Monarchy | Core Feature | Typical Countries | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Absolute Monarchy | Monarch has full political power | Saudi Arabia, Brunei | Stable leadership, quick decisions | Concentration of power, lack of participation |
| Constitutional Monarchy | Monarch shares power with constitution/parliament | Sweden, Norway | Tradition + democratic control | Power often symbolic, interpretation conflicts possible |
| Parliamentary Monarchy | Monarch purely representative, parliament governs | United Kingdom, Japan | Democratic government, stability | Monarch only ceremonial, no political influence |
| Federal Monarchy | Federal states under monarchs or princes | United Arab Emirates | Regional autonomy, cultural diversity | Different power balance between regions |
| Elective Monarchy | Monarch not hereditary but elected | Malaysia (rotation of sultans), Vatican (Pope) | Election guarantees legitimacy | Instability possible, politically sensitive power transition |
| Dual Monarchy | Two monarchs rule jointly | Austria-Hungary (historical) | Power balance between regions | Conflicts between rulers, complex administration |
| Hereditary Monarchy | Throne succession according to inheritance | Morocco, Jordan | Continuity, tradition | No democratic legitimacy, power may be inherited incompetently |
| Theocratic Monarchy | Monarch is also religious head | Vatican City, historical Iran | Unity of religion & state, clear guidance | Religious power can limit citizens’ rights |
Parliamentary & Constitutional Monarchy
- Belgium (federal parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy) – federal, power strongly divided between federal government and regions
- Netherlands (parliamentary constitutional monarchy (territory of the Netherlands) – centralised, uniform national legislation
- Aruba (parliamentary democracy (autonomous territory within the Kingdom of the Netherlands))
- Curaçao (parliamentary democracy (autonomous territory within the Kingdom of the Netherlands))
- Caribbean Netherlands (special municipalities of the Netherlands)
- Denmark (parliamentary constitutional monarchy)
- Faroe Islands (parliamentary democracy (territory of the Kingdom of Denmark))
- Norway (parliamentary constitutional monarchy)
- Svalbard and Jan Mayen (territory of Norway)
- Bouvet Island (territory of Norway)
- Sweden (parliamentary constitutional monarchy)
- United Kingdom (parliamentary constitutional monarchy) – [United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland]
- Guernsey (parliamentary democracy (autonomous Crown dependency of the British Crown))
- Isle of Man (parliamentary democracy (autonomous Crown dependency of the British Crown))
- Jersey (parliamentary democracy (autonomous Crown dependency of the British Crown))
- Gibraltar (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- Bermuda (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom)
- Canada (federal parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Belize (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Falkland Islands (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands (British overseas territory)
- Anguilla (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- Antigua and Barbuda (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Bahamas (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Dominica (parliamentary republic (Commonwealth of Nations))
- Grenada (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Jamaica (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Virgin Islands (UK) (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- Cayman Islands (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- Montserrat (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- St. Lucia (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- St. Vincent and the Grenadines (parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Turks and Caicos Islands (parliamentary democracy (self-governing territory of the United Kingdom))
- St. Kitts and Nevis (federal parliamentary democracy (under constitutional monarchy))
- Spain (parliamentary constitutional monarchy)
constitutional monarchy
- Principality of Monaco (constitutional monarchy)
- Liechtenstein (constitutional monarchy)
- Luxembourg (constitutional monarchy)
absolute monarchy
- Vatican (theocratic monarchy (absolute monarchy))
Monarchy – Republic, State Structure, System of Government, Division of Power
| Country | Monarchy / Republic | State Structure | Government System | Role of Monarch | Special Feature |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Belgium | Constitutional Monarchy | Federal | Parliamentary | Representative, very limited | Power shared between federal & regional governments |
| Netherlands | Constitutional Monarchy | Unitary | Parliamentary | Representative, very limited | Unified national legislation |
| Sweden | Constitutional Monarchy | Unitary | Parliamentary | Representative, ceremonial | King has no political power |
| Norway | Constitutional Monarchy | Unitary | Parliamentary | Representative, ceremonial | Parliament elects government |
| United Kingdom | Constitutional Monarchy | Unitary (with devolution in Scotland/Wales) | Parliamentary | Representative, ceremonial | Devolved administration in some regions |
| Spain | Constitutional Monarchy | Unitary | Parliamentary | Representative, ceremonial | Autonomous regions with certain competencies |
| Denmark | Constitutional Monarchy | Unitary | Parliamentary | Representative, ceremonial | Relatively small administrative regions |
| Luxembourg | Constitutional Monarchy | Unitary | Parliamentary | Representative, ceremonial | Very small state, monarch largely symbolic |
| Liechtenstein | Constitutional Monarchy | Unitary | Parliamentary with strong monarch powers | King can block legislation, prime minister dependent | Monarch has political veto rights |
| Monaco | Constitutional Monarchy | Unitary | Parliamentary with prince | Prince has political powers | Monarch actively makes decisions |
| Andorra | Parliamentary Diarchy | Unitary | Parliamentary | Two heads of state (co-princes) | Unique diarchic system |
| France | Republic | Unitary | Semi-Presidential | – | President powerful, monarchy abolished |
| Germany | Republic | Federal | Parliamentary | – | Federal states with own legislation |
| Switzerland | Republic | Federal | Parliamentary / Direct Democracy | – | Cantons have strong rights, citizens can vote directly |
Comparison table: Important types of dictatorships
| Type of Dictatorship | Core Feature | Advantages (theoretical / short-term) | Disadvantages (structural / long-term) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Military Dictatorship | Power lies with the military or a junta | Quick decision-making, order in crises | Oppression, violence, lack of civilian control |
| One-Party Dictatorship | Single party controls state & society | Political stability, clear ideology | No opposition, abuse of power, stagnation |
| Personalist Dictatorship | Power concentrated in a single individual | Unified leadership, rapid implementation | Dependence on one person, arbitrariness, succession crises |
| Totalitarian Dictatorship | State controls politics, economy, society & thought | Complete enforcement of state goals | Massive human rights violations, climate of fear |
| Authoritarian Dictatorship | Limited pluralism, but no real democracy | Stability, limited personal freedoms possible | No real participation, legal uncertainty |
| Theocratic Dictatorship | Religious authority rules politically | Clear moral-religious order | Restriction of freedoms, intolerance |
| Monarchical Dictatorship (absolute rule) | Monarch has unlimited power | Continuity, tradition, fast decisions | No separation of powers, no democratic control |
| Oligarchic Dictatorship | Power with small elite (military, party, wealthy) | Efficient elite governance | Interests of the majority ignored |
| Ideological Dictatorship | State strictly follows an ideology | Clear goal orientation, mobilization | Dogmatism, persecution of dissenters |
| Civilian Dictatorship | Civilian leadership without democratic legitimacy | Stability without military rule | Authoritarianism, restricted rights |
States that are de facto dictatorships
- Belarus (presidential republic (actually a dictatorship))
- Russia (semi-presidential federal republic (oligarchic dictatorship))
- Venezuela (federal presidential republic (!!))
- Cuba (republic (communist one-party system))